PINEAPPLE PRODUCTION

1. Introduction

Pineapple is a tropical and sub-tropical fruit grown in many countries in Africa. It is a native of Southern Brazil and Paraguay area where wild relatives occur in abundance. Pineapple is a perennial monocotyledonous plant having a terminal inflorescence and a terminal composite fruit. Adult pineapple plants are up to 1 m high and 0.5 m wide while adult ‘Smooth Cayenne’ plants are up to 1.5 m high to1 m wide.

Pineapple plantation     Source: https://189662-567937-2-raikfcquaxqncofqfm.stackpathdns.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Pineapple-Farming.jpg

 The fruit is rich in vitamin A, C, and minerals like P, Ca, Mg, K and Fe. It is eaten in various forms as either fresh fruit, processed into juice, or canned as flesh. The fruit as well as the other plant parts like stem contain a proteolytic enzyme, bromelin, which helps the digestion process. This is used for tenderizing meat and in the leather tanning process. Including pineapple in the daily diet has loads of health benefits. The fruit contains good amount of fibers, which help in the bowel movement, reduces blood clotting and helps to remove plaque from arterial walls

 

In Rwanda, pineapple is grown in all the regions, Northern Province Southern, Eastern and Western. It is estimated that over 17,000 hectares are under pineapple cultivation in the Eastern Province. Pineapple is a significant horticultural fruit crop in Rwanda. It is a tradable crop and generates reasonable income.

 

2.     Varieties of Pineapple

Variety	Varietal traits
smooth Cayenne Source:https://www.tropicalpermaculture.com/	Its yellow flesh and has high sugar and acid content. This variety weighs around 2.5 to 3 kg. It is the variety which is most suited to canning. Highly productive, has good flavor, carries a longer shelf life and has an ideal shape for mechanical processing. It is however, highly susceptible to Mealy Bug and nematode attacks.
Red Spanish Pineapple Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pineapple#/media/File	Red Spanish pineapples are orange-red in color. It has square shaped hard spiky leaves with soothing scent. It produces fruit that has a light-yellow color and an aromatic flavor. They are sturdy and high in fiber, but are not as tender as other varieties. Attractive for export market. Weighs up to 1 to 2 kgs.
Queen Pineapple Source:dreamstime.com	The Victoria pineapple is, in the opinion of experts, the best in the world. Its particularly sweet and fruity flavor, exceptional aroma, irresistible taste, small size and bright color make it unparalleled. Pineapple is rich in calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus and potassium, not to mention its notable vitamin A, B, C and E content. Queen pineapples are more tolerant of diseases and cold temperatures than other types of pineapple It weighs up to 1.5 kg. They can not be  canned well so they are better eaten fresh.
Sugarloaf Pineapple Source https://www.specialtyproduce.com/produce/Sugar_Loaf_Pineapple_786.php	-Sugarloaf pineapples are cylindrical in shape slightly tapering at the crown This variety remains relatively green even when fully ripe -The Sugarloaf pineapple has a white flesh and does not have any woodiness. The edible core is just as sweet to the taste, and unlike other varieties, it is not woody or fibrous. - Sugarloaf pineapples are an excellent source of manganese, and a good source of potassium, calcium, vitamin C and fiber. They also contain magnesium, phosphorus, copper, folate, and vitamins B1 and B6. Their overall nutritional content provides digestive and immune support, as well as anti-inflammatory benefits. -It weighs around 2.3 to 2.7 kg and is sweet and juicy.

 

3.     Agro-ecological requirements

Soil: The best soil for pineapple culture is a well-drained, sandy loam with a high content of organic matter and it should be friable for a depth of at least 60 cm. The crop does well on optimum pH of 4-5. Soils with old ant hills have a higher pH, and are not suitable for the production of good pineapples. Avoid black cotton soil, low lying areas and common red loams that are likely to flood. 

Rainfall: Pineapple will produce fruit under annual precipitation ranging from 650 to 3,800 mm depending on cultivar, location and atmospheric humidity (RH should range between 70 and 80%). Ideal rainfall for pineapple production is about 1,100 mm. Reasonable yields can be obtained with as little as 750 mm of well-distributed rainfall per year or with supplementary irrigation (600 mm and 2500 mm being the outer limits). Irrigation is essential right after planting unless this is done during the rainy season. After establishment, irrigation is only necessary when long dry periods occur. Overhead or drip irrigation is recommended and flood irrigation should be avoided. Pineapples cannot stand waterlogging.

Temperature: Pineapple is grown successfully in tropical lowlands and in the subtropics, in areas where the climate is warm, humid and free from extreme temperatures. A temperature range of 18°C to 45°C is favorable, 25°C being optimal, though the plant can tolerate cool nights for short periods. Prolonged cold retards growth, delays maturity and causes the fruit to be more acid. Temperatures below 2°C can lead to chlorotic discoloration, so, away from tropics, the right combination of heat and moisture are important factors to consider for successful pineapple production.

Altitude: Pineapples grow well from sea level up to 2000 m. Altitude has an important effect on the flavor of the fruit; above 1800 m they become increasingly sour and acidic. 

4.    Seed multiplication and certification requirement

4.1 Generative multiplication

Pineapple seeds lack dormancy, have a very tough seed coat and a hard, flinty endosperm. Seed production is done through hand pollination. However, the fertility rate is very low and consequently seed production is very rare.Seeds are desired only in breeding programs. Without treatment germination is slow and very irregular. Seeds retain germination capacity for about six months at tropical ambient temperature.Icyo gihe zizamera nyuma y' amezi atandatu. Treatment with sulfuric acid achieves germination in 10 days, but higher rates of germination (75-90 %) and more vigorous growth of seedlings results from planting untreated seeds. The seedlings are planted when 15-18 months old and will bear fruit 16-30 months later.

4.2Vegetative propagation

Propagation of pineapple is not through seeds but by vegetative propagation.

Three types of planting material are used for pineapple growing.

• Crowns are the leafy growth on top of the fruit. They take 25-28 months to come into bearing, but have uniform growth and are less susceptible to premature fruiting.
• Slips are leafy shoot growth arising from the fruit stalks. They take 22-24 months to come into bearing.
• Suckers are leafy shoot growth from the base of the plant where the roots grow. They give the highest yield, but take long to fruit production. They are also more difficult to plant. Suckers take 18-22 months to come into bearing.

Pineapples are slow growing Bromeliads.From slips, they take about a year to mature enough to form a flower for fruit. From suckers about 1 1/2 years to form flowers and from cuttings they can take 2 1/2 years to mature enough to flower. Once they flower, it takes another 6 months for the fruit to mature.
 

To achieve uniform plant growth, selection and sizing of planting material is of major importance.
All planting material can be stored upside down (to promote suberisation and avoid rotting) in the shade for up to three months and then planted in loose friable dry or pre irrigated soil. Only totally healthy and if possible vigourous shoots should be chosen (about 400 to 500 g in weight are best), in order to ensure a uniform crop. Slips can also tolerate dryness, yet not as well as the suckers . Slips vary much in size making grading in sizes necessary in order to have uniform plantings.

5.     Integrated soil fertility management

• 5 to 10 tons of manure per hectare applied to the field before planting.  A general application of 180 to 200 kg/ ha of rock phosphate should be added at the same time.
• Nitrogen is one of the most vital building blocks for young pineapple plants. It should be applied at the rate of 50 kg per hectare as top dressing one month after planting.
• An additional 23.5g/plant of nitrogen rich fertilizer (urea 46-0-0) is applied from the 4th month after planting (1/3), 6 months after planting (1/3) and after 8 months after planting (1/3) ,
• If the soil has a high pH level, which means it is alkaline, and then an occasional soil drench of chelated iron near the base of each plant can lower the soil's pH level and benefit the plants.

• Additional nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus (NPK) can be applied later at the rate of 16: 4:12 grams per plant applied three to six months’ interval is recommended before maturity.

• Each ratoon crop will again need a new supply of nutrients and will benefit from compost as well as rock phosphate at the same rate

Warning

Pineapple plants suffer when grown in limey soil. Lime should be added to only very acidic soil that needs to be neutralized.

 

Deficiencies

 

a)Nitrogen: symptoms Stunted growth. Pale green to light yellow color (chlorosis) appearing first on older leaves, usually starting at the tips. Depending on the severity of deficiency, the chlorosis could result in the death and / or dropping of the older leaves.  Foliar spray of urea @1-2 % at fortnightly intervals corrects this deficiency.

 

b)Phosphorous: Symptoms appear on older leaves. The leaves are small and narrow with purplish or bronze discoloration. Leaves develop necrotic areas and fall off.  Correction measure: Soil application of phosphoric fertilizer or Foliar spray of DAP@2%.

 

c)Potassium : symptoms appear first in older leaves having orange, yellow to pale green color. Upper surface show reddish purple discoloration. Young leaves remain dark green. Leaves curl down and lose luster and turgidity.  Correction measure: Foliar spray of K2SO4 1% at fortnightly intervals

 

d)Calcium : Young emerging leaves show chlorosis become pale green and curl down. Leaves later turn to greenish pink or red color. The terminal shoot poorly developed.  Correction measure: Application of CaSO4 @ 2kg / tree/year

Micronutrients

e)Boron: Fruit necrosis which begins with the browning of inner most part of the mesocarpic tissues at the time of endocarp hardening. This is extended towards the epicarp resulting into brownish black areas on the fruit surfaces depending of the severity of the disorder.  Correction measure: Foliar spray of borax@0.5%

f)Copper: Plants show overall droopy appearance with shortened intervals between petiole. Size of leaves reduced.  Correction measure: Foliar spray of 1-2% CuSO4

g)Iron: Symptoms are first seen in the youngest leaves. The leaves eventually turn completely chlorotic.  Correction measure: Foliar spray of FeSO4@0.5-1.0%

h)Zinc:Stunted growth narrowing of leaves with pale green or yellow color. Inter-venial chlorosis starting from tip of leaflets and spreading to the remaining area leaving only the midrib green.Correction measure: Foliar spray of ZnSO4 @ 0.5%

6.    Regenerative Agriculture

Regenerative agriculture is an ideology and farming practice based on many years of scientific research and agro-ecological farming practices such as organic, biodynamic and permaculture. Regenerative agriculture works in harmony with nature, valuing animals and ecology. It increases biodiversity, builds and enlivens soils, protects the land from erosion and improves our ecosystems. It also aims to sequester carbon below and above ground in soil, plants and trees, reversing current trends of accelerating carbon emissions. This practice should be used in pineapple cultivation to create competitive yields, provides jobs – safer working environments for farming communities – and importantly healthier, better tasting food.

 

Crop rotation: Crop rotation should be followed allowing several years between pineapple crops on the same land. Some crops usually included in rotation with pineapples are groundnuts, beans, rice and vegetables. To prepare the land used for pineapple production,green manure plants like cowpea can be grown and incorporated into the soil prior to planting pineapples. Crop rotation is important to avoid build-up of root knot and other nematodes that contribute to large crop losses. To be effective, crops known to reduce or eliminate root knot nematode infestation should be planted between pineapple crops. 

Intercropping: In the wider space between the double rows of pineapple, you can grow beans or groundnuts during the first year. This improves the soil. Most farmers cut down all the trees to establish pineapple gardens. But they are wrong. In fact, pineapples grow best and give better quality fruit when there is some shade. Apart from bananas, you can also plant a few trees in between your pineapples to provide some shade.

 

7.     Land Preparation

a)Site selection and soil preparation: The land should be well prepared before planting because pineapple is shallow-rooted and easily damaged by post-planting cultivation. Proper land preparation is extremely important for the development of the roots. Poor land preparation result in poor yields. Perennial weeds should be cleared by repeated deep cultivations during the dry season.

Uproot weeds (e.g. couch grass (I sp.), allow them to dry, harrow into strips and burn them. In areas where the soils have high clay content, it is essential to plough also during the dry season to facilitate root penetration of pineapples. Plough to a depth of 45 cm, or if using hand digging, dig as deep as possible. After ploughing, use a disc harrow to produce a fine tilth.  Small-scale growers can uproot old pineapple plants by hand, while large growers can use a large harrow to uproot and chop the stumps and leaves.

B) Sowing and nursery care

• Seed preparation using  suckers
• Seed preparation using  crown
• Slip shoot
• Tissue culture.

 

Parts of Pineapple that can be used for propagation

Suckers are shoots growing from buds below the ground level and shoots are leaf branches produced from buds in the axils of leaves above ground levels. Both suckers and shoots are produced as daughter plants by side of mother plant, in the post flowering stage. Slips are smaller structures arising from fruit stalks. Crowns, which adorns the fruits, grow as extension of the central core of fruits and have a large number of leaves arranged closely on central axils. Tissue culture suckers are produced in laboratory and they are generally disease free.

 

c) Field selection, preparation and layout

 

Suckers that are ready for transplanting. Source https://www.tropicalpermaculture.com/pineapple-growing.html

Planting is done by hand, with or without the aid of a planting machine. Use of the latter results in uniform, neat plantations. Plant spacing:

 

-Spacing from ridge centre to ridge centre: 1. 5 m- 2m

-Each ridge must carry a double row of plants.

 

- Spacing between rows should be 60 cm.

-Spacing between the plants in the row: 30 cm

 

d) Planting season:

• Planting takes place at the beginning of the rainy season or it can start any time in the irrigated areas.
•  Scaly leaves should be removed from the lower portion of the propagule stem to expose the primordia (future roots). If this is not done, establishment will take long.
• Planting density:
• Pineapple plants respond very positively to high density planting giving satisfactory results under different growing regions.
•  Some farmers use double rows, others 3 rows, others more.

 

e) Planting methods:

The propagules are planted following triangular method.

• Flatbed planting: planting is done on flat beds in lines in areas where soil erosion is not a problem.
• Raised bed planting: this system is suitable for low-lying lands. In general, 2-3 lines planting  is practiced on raised beds. The channels in between beds facilitate proper drainage and if necessary can be used for irrigation purpose.
• Furrow planting: Field is laid out in trenches, generally 90cm width alternating with mounds. In sloppy areas, trenches are to be made across the slop. Depth of the trenches may be about 22.5 to 30 cm.
• Contour planting: In order to prevent soil erosion due to excessive rainfall, contour planting is advisable.

 

8.    Crop management

1. Manure and fertilizers

If legumes are used as green cover plants, it should be considered that they supply significant amounts of nitrogen to the soil when calculating the amounts of compost required. In this case, compost with a rather high C/N ratio should be used. If possible, the compost should be spread in two separate lots: one half (about 2.5 tons) before planting, and about 2.5 tons to induce flower formation. However  too much nitrogen will result in watery/ glassy fruit as well as in production of multiple crowns on fruits and too many slips to the expenses of fruit size. Deficits in the potassium supply can be balanced out by the use of wood ash (combined with compost). No fertilization should take place after the first bud stage.

Weeding and mulching

Weed Control

• From the beginning to the second harvest, the farm has to be clean and cleared,
• The farmers have to keep removing the weeds either in the space in the way in between the fruits,
• Herbicides also can be used to remove the weeds such as Aminitriazol, parquet, glyph sate, dalapan, Bromacil using between 2 kg and 5 kg per hectare.

 

 

Mulching

• Black polyethylene approximately 90 cm wide is used as mulch in most commercial pineapple plantations. As the mulch is rolled out on the planting bed, its edges are covered with soil. Planting holes are punched through the plastic with a trowel,
• Also, dry grasses or sawdust can be used as mulching materials,
• The mulch increases soil temperature in the root zone, helps to conserve soil moisture, promotes rooting by concentrating moisture in the root zone, and controls weeds.

3. Irrigation

Irrigation is essential right after planting unless this is done during the rainy season. After establishment, irrigation is only necessary when long dry periods occur. Overhead or drip irrigation is recommended and flood irrigation should be avoided. Pineapples cannot stand water logging.

 

 

 

9.    Pest and diseases control in pineapples

a)    Pests in Pineapple

Pest	Damage	Management
Thrips (Thrips tabaci and Frankliniella schultzei)   Source:  ehinga.org	Feeds mainly on flowers and its feeding results in the development of "dead-eye" in the fruit. Thrips feed on the crown of fruits results in concentric ring patterns developing on crown leaves.	Control weeds in and around pineapples Uproot heavily infested plant material. Control thrips in the early stages, in particular immature thrips ;  adult thrips are unable to pick the virus from infected plants.   Spray with insecticide A garlic bulb extract can be sprayed thoroughly on the whole plant, preferably early in the morning.
Pineapple mealybug (Dysmicoccus brevipes) Source:ehinga.com	The mealybugs are oval, pink in color, up to 3 mm long, covered with a whitish waxy secretion, It is the most serious pest in pineapples Common on the roots of pineapple and large colonies develop on the stems just above ground level. May spread upwards to feed in the floral cavities, on both small and mature fruit, and crown leaves. Heavy infestations are conspicuous because of the white waxy adults, which often occur at the growing points, around the stem nodes, on the undersides of leaves, on the fruit and on the roots.	Control ants to give a chance to natural enemies to keep mealybugs under control. Use planting material from wilt-free areas. Heating pineapple crowns in a large water bath at 50°C for 30 minutes Cayenne variety (and 'Masmerah') is highly susceptible. ‘Spanish’ shows some resistance.

 

 

 

 

 

b)   Diseases in Pineapple

Disease		Symptom		Management
Pineapple Mealybug Wilt-associated closterovirus (PMWaV) Korositerovirusi yo kuma kw' inanasi ikwirakwizwa n' utumatirizi Source: pesnet.org		Infected plants become yellowish-red to bright red at the leaf tips, this coloration spreading down the leaf with time. Leaves turn colorand show signs of wilting. Severely infected plants become stunted and produce small, under-grade and immature fruits. First effect of the disease usually appears in the roots, which stop growing, collapse and then rot The disease is introduced through infected planting material		- - - - Use planting material from wilt-free areas. Heating pineapple crowns in a large water bath at 50°C for 30 minutes Cayenne variety (and 'Masmerah') is highly susceptible. ‘Spanish’ shows some resistance.
Yellow spot virus   Source: researchgate.net		Identical to the tomato spotted wilt virus. A number of wild plants, including some common weeds such as the black jack (Bidens pilosa) and Datura stramonium, are also host of this virus. Thrips are vectors of this virus. Symptoms in the fruit is a blackened, dry cavity in the side of the fruit due to one or more "eyes" having died.		Control weeds in and around pineapple fields. Cut off the fruits showing early symptoms of infection. Where this disease is a problem avoid planting near host plants of the thrips and the virus. Control thrips.
Black rot of pineapple (Ceratocystis paradoxa) Source:  pestnet.org		Black rot is a post-harvest disease occurring only on injured pineapple fruit. Only freshly, cut or injured tissue is infected, and a soft black rot with dark colored mycelium develops.		Care should be exercised during harvesting and packing so that the fruit is subjected to minimal injuries. Fruit may also be dipped in a fungicide after harvesting, to give protection against infections. Avoid contaminating the central base of the plant with disease-infected soil especially during the hilling-up operation. Good soil drainage is a necessary. Where rainfall is heavy or soils are not well drained, soil management techniques such as ridging must be used to improve drainage. Avoid freshly cut slips or crowns unless dried Remove all infected pineapples
Pineapple top and root rot   Source: plantvillage.psu.edu	The leaf edges curve back and leaves are easily pulled out from the plant. Internally, the stem and leaf bases become soft, rotten and have an unpleasant smell. The growing point of the stem has a cheese-like appearance. It is common in young plants of 3-8 months.  Splashing rain, irrigation water and biting insects act as agents to spread disease.		Don’t plant pineapples in soils prone to water logging. Ensure good drainage. Improve soil by selective fruit rotations and application of organic compost material. Avoid overhead irrigation. Control insect pests. Planting materials can be dipped in copper fungicides before planting or use resistant plants.

 

 

10. Harvesting, post-harvest handling and storage of Pineapple

 

Pineapple fruit should be harvested when it is firm and mature. Pineapples do not improve in eating quality after harvest. Sugar content does not increase after harvest. Therefore, the fruit must be picked at the optimum maturity and ripeness stage to suit the intended market. Pineapples are judged mature when they have reached full size and a nice yellow color, depending on variety.  Pineapples are ripe and ready to harvest when the entire outer skin develops a yellowish color and a pineapple smell and the flesh is an orange-yellow color. It's best to allow the fruit to fully ripen on the plant because once picked, it won't get any sweeter, although the outer skin will continue to ripen.

It is difficult to tell when the pineapple is ready to be harvested. A good, ripe fruit has a dull, solid sound. For fresh consumption, fruits are harvested at ‘one- or two-eyes ripe’ meaning that the bottom one or two eyes have turned color. However, the use of this harvest index depends on cultivar as well as the destination of the market. At 127 days after flower induction, the fruits normally reach the stage of 25% shell color i.e. a quarter of the fruit shows an attractive yellow-orange color. Harvesting is usually done between 7 and 14 days after the fruit has yellowed.

When harvesting your ripe pineapple, use a clean knife or pruning snips and cut the pineapple from the stalk at the fruit’s base. Before cutting, wipe your blades off with rubbing alcohol so that you don’t transfer any diseases to the mother plant and the developing suckers or pups. If you harvest the pineapple before it totally changes colors, you can allow the outer skin to finish ripening indoors at room temperature. Don’t refrigerate fruits that aren’t fully ripe because the cold interferes with the ripening process and chill damage can occur. You can store ripe pineapples in the refrigerator for about a week before using.

The internal indices include percentage soluble solids (i.e. sugar content) and appearance. The amount of fruit surface yellowing may be used as a guide for determining when to harvest in certain cultivars. Generally, the more yellow the surface area (less chlorophyll), the more mature and ripe the fruit. The natural progression of surface color change during pineapple fruit maturation is from green to yellow to reddish- brown. If the fruit is allowed to remain on the plant until the full yellow stage it will have a flatter, less desirable flavor due to excess sugar content coupled with decreased acidity. The fruit will also be more susceptible to bruise damage at the full yellow stage. At very advanced stages of over-maturity, the surface color of the fruit changes to reddish-brown. Once the fruit has been harvested, the change in surface color and amount of yellowing should not be used as an indicator of fruit ripeness, since postharvest color changes are not correlated with eating quality.

 

Color stages are categorized as follows.

• CS1: all eyes green, no traces of yellow;
• CS2: 5 to 20% of the eyes yellow;
• CS3: 20 to 40% of the eyes yellow;
• CS4: 40 to 80% of the eyes yellow;
• CS5: 90% of eyes yellow, 5 to 20% reddish brown;
• CS6: 20 to 100% of eyes reddish brown.

 

Figure 2 Maturity indices or visual ripening stages of pineapple followed in different countries

 

1.Packinghouse Operations

Fruit must be prepared for marketing in a packinghouse where they are well protected from intense heat, sunlight, and rain. A packinghouse could also serve as a trading post for pooled produced by small farmers. Quality control system can be implemented so that the fruit will meet the quality requirements of the clients. The appropriate size of the packinghouse would depend on the volume of fruits that would pass through the area at one time (As a rule, for every ton, a floor area of 20m²is required).

a)Trimming  

Pineapples harvested with the peduncle on should be trimmed close to the base of the fruit to minimize injury to other fruits during packaging on bulk transport. Trimming can be done using sharp, clean knife or a shear.

b)Waxing  

Waxing pineapples is done to delay ripening and minimize moisture loss, thus increase shelf life or marketable life. It also minimizes the development of chilling disorder called blackheart. Wax formulations that can be used include Sta Fresh (imported) or the locally developed ones using edible oil or mineral oil. For Queen Pineapple, a mineral oil-based formulation consisting of 1 part mineral oil, 20 parts water, and 1 part liquid detergent can be used. For Smooth Cayenne, use of Sta Fresh at 1 part wax, 6 parts water ratio and a formulation consisting of cooking oil and water (1 part oil:6parts water) is recommended. The above wax formulations could extend the marketable life of Queen and Smooth Cayenne by 1 week relative to marketable life of unwaxed fruits. Wax formulations can be applied using a soft brush or sprayer.

c)Packing and Packaging

 Pineapples are packed manually in containers (baskets, crates, or cartons) in a flat pack manner with fruits lying on the sides in an alternate crown-to-base fashion. This manner of packing is recommended for Queen because of its small size. For Smooth Cayenne, it is better to pack the fruits inside a container in an upright position in a crown-to-crown or base-to-base fashion.

For export, wooden boxes should be used and the packing methods appropriate for each variety should be strictly observed. Shredded papers are placed between fruits to cushion against vibrations and impact during transit. Storage Pineapples can be stored at a low temperature but they are subject to chilling injury (blackheart). Blackheart is characterized by the appearance of dark brown, water-soaked tissues near the core and by a distinct fermented odor. This disorder develops during cold storage below 200C and symptoms manifest 2-3 days after withdrawal from the cold condition. For Queen and Smooth Cayenne, the optimum refrigerated storage temperature is 200C and no chilling injury develops up to 14 days. Waxing prior to low temperature storage is recommended to alleviate the development of blackheart.

The use of appropriate packing for the product fulfills the following functions:

• To avoid the loss of aroma,
• To protect the product against the admission of flavors and disgusting scents.
•  To offer a good period of conservation.
• To avoid the accumulation or loss of humidity
• To protect the product against damages and
• To offer a space to print the necessary information about the product.

 

d)Transport

Bulk transport using non-refrigerated vans is the most economically feasible method of transporting pineapples from growing areas to market centers. To reduce compression or physical damage during bulk transport, the vehicle should be provided with horizontal dividers. Fruits should be arrange lying on their sides in an alternate crown-to-base fashion. Transport should be done during the coolest time of the day or during nighttime. For export, transport by sea or air requires recommended low temperature throughout the handling chain.

11.   Marketing

 After transporting the harvest of Rwanda pineapples to the packinghouse, thy are gradedby their size, appearance, and weight. Thelargest pieces which weigh about 4.5 kilos go into a separate grade from those that are heavier than 2.5 kilos.  The graded fruits are then washedin purified water and  often  use wax to remove the brown spots that occur after handling.   Trim the crown, leaving just a couple of neat leaves. We cull any overripe pineapple for the juice production section.

               

 

 

 

 

Packed pineapple ready for market Source:  dominicangoldfruit.com

 

 

 

 

 

References

http://www.ehinga.org/eng/articles/pineapple/crop_management

https://www.infonet-biovision.org/PlantHealth/Crops/Pineapple

https://www.accessagriculture.org/intercropping-pineapples

https://vikaspedia.in/agriculture/crop-production/integrated-pest-managment/ipm-for-fruit-crops/ipm-strategies-for-pineapple/nutritional-deficiencies-of-pine-apple

https://www.itfnet.org/v1/2016/05/pineapple-agronomy/

https://fortuneofafrica.com/rwanda/pineapple/

https://www.itfnet.org/v1/2011/11/404/

http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/inpho/docs/Post_Harvest_Compendium_-_Pineapple.pdf